Juvenile Justice reform Essay

I would like to make some recommendations on Juvenile Justice reform as young people are important part of our population. First of all I would like to comment on juvenile crime. Without any doubt,crime is one of the biggest problems society is facing today,and partly,the society is to blame for it. There should be some deterrents to make people fear the law. However,the prison is not always the best solution. Another way of punishing them is to get them to do some kind of community service. Nevertheless,if people are sent to prison they may be pushed towards a life of crime. Therefore,they may become even hardened criminals. On the other hand,community service may help integrate them into society. Another advantage of community service is that it is a cheaper alternative to prison as the offender continues to live at home. Besides,the offender is giving something back to the society instead taking from it. However,community service should,in my view,only be used as an alternative to prison when the crime comotted is minor,such a petty theft. Furthermore,I would suggest that young offenders should see the consequences of their actions and that they should be made to repay those they have robbed. I feel that it would be particularly beneficial for the victims of a crime. It seems that,while community service may work for some offenders,it fails for others. In my opinion it is better for offenders who have commited a minor crime,who are not dangerous for the society. Certainly,hardened criminals should be sent to prison. Protection of the public may be effective as long as the prisoner is inside. It may prove ineffective in the long run once the prisoner is realised,unless the rehabilitation has taken place(education and job training should be given in prison). As I mentioned above,the society is partly responsible for the youth criminal. Young offenders are not intrinsically bad,they are only reacting to the conditions in which they are finding themselves. The governement should improve the welfare of young people and give them the opportunity to contribute to society. If a young person thinks he is a failure,he may be prone to violence,vandalism and crime. They should be given funds for education so that even those from the most disabled families have the oppurtunity to succeed in their life. The government should also help the talented youngsters,artists,musicians and subsidise their work. Without the financial help,they would not succeed and it would be a great loss for the whole society. The society should look after abandoned children and provide them with reasonable accomodation. Young people are different from adults. Their conflict during adolescence is caused by the fact that biological development is faster than social development. They want to be independent,but they cannot manage their life on their own. They have to learn that life is a hard struggle which includes big challenges they have to deal with. In society,teenagers are pressured to mature more quickly and have to make decisions regarding their education. The pressure to pass exams,to find a job,to master technology has become even greater. It is more difficult to find your place in society. It becomes more difficult to find and cultivate your own values. The environment is not the only cause of bad behaviour. People say that there has been a breakdown in discipline in the home. Children can no longer rely on their parents to be there to talk over their problems with them. Today? s mothers and fathers are busy following their career path,and many no longer have the energy to spend quality time with their children. Many youngsters are spoiled by their parents who try to calm their bad conscience by giving them money,but money is not always a good way to solve problems. This may cause difficulties for youngsters and it may be possible that they will not be able to overcome challenges and problems which are common during their lifetime. Boredom may also be a cause of delinquency ,so it is extremely important to provide leisure facilities for young people,such as clubs and sports centres. In some communities there is very little to do in the evening ,and I propose that money should be set aside to provide it. This may involve some expenditure,but there should be a considerable reduction in crime. Furthermore,some television programmes and films contain bad language and violence and,in my opinion,there should be some censorship because some impressionable youngsters may copy it. As I mentioned above,the problem is greater when there is nothing to do,because a young person is more likely to spend the whole day staring at a screen which may be extremely harmful for their health. It affects the eyesight and may cause back and neck problems. It cannot be good for young people to risk their life in that way. They should be made fully aware of the health benefits of exercising and the dangers of obesity. Some exercise facilities should also be provided. I believe that my recommendations will be taken into consideration and that it will benefit the youngsters and help them grow into healthy and eminent citizens.

Do We Pay Athletes Too Much?

Do professional athletes get paid too much? In my personal opinion: No In this modern era this is an ethical issue that comes up more and more often. This has been brought up especially in times of economic hardship and the recession whereby families are really struggling to make ends meet with unemployment, delay of retirement and general reductions in disposable income. During this paper it shall be discussed how the ethical issue of high wages came about, why it is an issue, who is affected and what actions can be taken. Why is there this ethical problem?To put it simply, it is a matter of personal opinion and knowledge on whether you believe professional athletes in the United States should get paid the level of wages that they do. Below is a chart produced by Canbridge University which gives an introductory represenation of the salaries professional athletes earn annually. From June 2008 to June 2009, the highest paid professional athlete, Tiger Woods, made $110 million accordin g to Forbes. Also on their list, at number two, was Kobe Bryant making $45 million, and Michael Jordan with the same amount (and Michael Jordan hasn’t played in quite a while! . According to Forbes Magazine, the highest paying â€Å"regular† job in the U. S. during 2009 was that of a surgeon. The average annual pay of a surgeon last year was $206,770 (also out of Forbes). While the average pay for classroom teachers in the United States is $38,000 per year. At that rate, a teacher would need a little more than 27 years to make $1 million — less than half what a basketball player makes, on average, in just one year. The average pay for fire-fighters in the United States is around $40,000. The starting salary for police officers in the United States is around $29,000.Do athletes deserve more money than fire-fighters or teachers — people who hold what many consider being more valuable jobs? This is the basis of where this ethical problem comes about. Some pe ople work their entire life trying to make a living to support the families they have and have a very hard time trying to live near the poverty line. Some of the jobs they have to take to support their families are hard, manual labor jobs that they have to work at for 12 hours at a time. For example, adults that work in fast food estaurants usually work long days so they can make enough money to support a family, because minimum wage doesn’t go far in today’s world. Single parents usually work even harder than families that have two incomes helping to support them. The average professional football player gets paid almost $2 million and they’re not even the highest paid professional sport. Basketball players make the most out of all pro sports with the average salary being $5 million and the only thing they have to do is practice and play in games (FreeMoneyFinance).However it is rarely considered how much tax and good these athletes do in helping our economy. I n the banking business it is known as the ‘jock tax’ and when understood, people will not be so judgmental. For federal purposes, professional athletes are taxed in the same manner as other taxpayers: gross income less deductions equals taxable income. Federal tax is computed without regard to your state of residency (home state), or where the employer/team is located (team state). The current top federal tax rate is 35%, starting at taxable income of $319,101 (2004, single filing status) (ZZLR. om). Now to tax that level for an athlete that earns millions of dollars a year is creating some useful revenue for states and the government that no one can argue with. Another reason why athletes do not get overpaid is the wrong attitude that some people posses. For example people say, â€Å"Oh, I would hit a baseball for millions of dollars a year. † Well, I’m sorry you can’t. These athletes are unbelievably blessed with talent. All of these players have such immense and extraordinary ability that they make the game look effortless.In fact, good luck hitting a 96 MPH fastball moving down and in on your hands with a wood bat. If you were to put one of these players with a cluster of amateurs, they would stand out to such a degree, it would be astonishing. So, is nine months out of the year devoid of a vacation easy for you? Is travelling to different cities approximately every three days across the nation undemanding for you? Is being away from your family for most of the year trouble-free for you? Is hitting a 96 MPH fastball effortless for you? You are starting to deserve that pay check.People say it is just a game and athletes shouldn’t be paid so much. It is not just a game. Billions and billions of dollars get dumped into professional sports. In fact, professional sports are the 11th most lucrative business in the entire world (UPENN. EDU). It is a form of entertainment and people are willing to pay the big bucks to watch these athletes perform. If nobody came to watch, they wouldn’t get paid what they do. The fans pay the wages after all. In economical terms demand for high performing sports stars is high while there are a few numbers of them.This makes their wages high. Direct affect this issue applies to, of course, is professional athletes†¦ along with their respected affiliated clubs/teams who pay their salaries. In certain examples such as that of soccer team Manchester City, which runs with a loss, is kept afloat by a Middle Eastern royal family so in that case they pay player’s wages. Indirectly effected parties include those who contribute to the funding of high wages. Examples of these include supporters going to games, television networks paying licence fees, the public paying for cable to watch the games.One of the options discussed would be to cut player’s salaries. Now this could have profound consequences for many directly and indirectly involved. Firstly, th e quality of sportsman would diminish. This is a general mental happening that when you reduce a person’s reward for something, more often than not, they will reduce their work ethic consequently. The knock on affect of this would be that people would then find sports less entertaining which is a social consequence as people need entertainment.After this it would probably be assumed that this industry that employs millions of people, the 11th largest industry in business, could start to struggle with the consequential fall in demand†¦ due to a fall in quality. People would indirectly be affected as the level of taxation that these athletes would drop and consequently affect the economy negatively not to mention the reduced spending the economy would see as they would have less disposable income. This would affect other people through job s and welfare.For example, if a professional footballer does not buy a boat in Florida then the company who makes the boat would lose o ut. Welfare wise, the federal governments would have less money to put towards benefits to help those less fortunate. Similar to this charities would find themselves losing out also as the athletes would probably donate less as they would have less wealth to offer. This would, again, influence people negatively. To partly reduce this ethical dilemma however it can be seen that wage caps could be introduced.These have been introduced in major competitions including: NFL, NHL, English Rugby Union and NBA. However there are pros and cons to the idea. For example, the  NBA salary cap  is the limit to the total amount of money that  National Basketball Association  teams are allowed to pay their players. It is defined by the  league's collective bargaining agreement  (CBA). The actual amount of the  salary cap  varies on a year-to-year basis, and is calculated as a percentage of the league's revenue from the previous season; for instance, in  2007–08, the NBA's s alary cap was approximately US$55.   million per team, and for the  2008–09  season it was $58. 68  million (NBA. com). Now, before it is discussed how the cap could be deemed pointless, it must be considered that if this system is done properly then wages would not go above and beyond relative figures when considering a leagues income. If a league sees more demand (television rights, franchise, etc) and therefore gains more revenue then it should be passed onto the players, surely. The issue here is that the actual problem of high wages is not stopped†¦ only in certain situations capped.To put across this point, in all but one season the revenue of NBA has been reduced. The reaction to this is that wages have also, in respect, gone up in a positive correlation. In conclusion, it is well documented that NBA stars are one of the best paid sports people in the business, even with a salary cap. The cap itself only stops certain individuals received ludicrous deals r elative to the rest of the industry and does not mean the average wage would not still be high. Again, there is the demand to watch these athletes and the result of this is the money that is made from that demand sustains high wages.It is basic economics. In terms of punishment for breaking of the salary caps, at the moment, only include fines. Examples of this include in 2012 where the Cowboys will be penalized $10 million, paying $5 million a year for two years. The Redskins penalty is much harsher at $36 million ($18 million a year for two years). While the Cowboys are unlikely to feel that much of a pinch, the penalty puts the Redskins in a world of hurt. That $18 million a year is significant money. The Redskins have a decent amount of young talent. Those not already signed to deals may be lost.Tight end Fred Davis, a burgeoning star, is on a one-year contract. And Kory Lichtensteiger, a left guard, may not be a Pro Bowler, but he’s worth keeping around. He is also on a one-year  deal (forbes. com). Personally, if I was a leader of an organization who had power over such an ethical issue such as a governing body or the government itself I do not believe I would enforce or change anything at present. In fact, the idea of a salary cap is off putting. I believe strongly that if an individual is worth a sum of money to a team that is natural in a market situation, i. . he can generate that revenue back for the team and the demand for him/her is there then why shouldn’t they get paid that money. Regardless of whether they save lives or not the quality of their labor is just as important. Perhaps not on a life-saving level however in terms of entertaining millions of people after thousands of hours of practise I believe to pay high wages is natural in the business environment professional athletes find themselves. Citations Badenhausen, Kurt. Top 100 paid athletes. N. p. : Forbes, 2012. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. ;http://www. forbes. om/sites/kurtbadenh ausen/2012/06/18/mayweather-tops-list-of-the-worlds-100-highest-paid-athletes/;. NBA. NBA salary cap. N. p. : NBA. com, 2008. N. pag. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. ;http://www. nba. com/news/salarycap_070710. html;. â€Å"Salaries of Professional Athletes. †Ã‚  FreeMoneyFinance. N. p. , 2006. Web. 10 Jan 2012. ;http://www. freemoneyfinance. com/2006/09/salaries_of_ave. html;. Cambridge University. Pros paid too much? Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2011. N. pag. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. ;http://www. cambridge. org/other_files/downloads/esl/strageticreading/6843_SRL1_U04_P09. 1_sport. pdf;. UPENN. Where's the business in sport? Philladelphia: University of Pennsylvania, n. d. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. . Zeisler, Zeisler, Rawson & Johnson LLP. Taxes: Cost of being a professional athlete. N. p. : ZZLRJ. com, 2011. N. pag. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. . Salary Cap Penalties. N. p. : Forbes, 2012. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. .

Corrections Module 5 Writing Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Corrections Module 5 Writing - Coursework Example Especially the problems occurred in the racial candidates’ recruitment with the fact that the people rarely came to work in rural locations, therefore more prisons had to be built in the metropolitan areas. As far as the recruitment of the female CO is concerned, the major issue covering the area is the classic discrimination and the male chauvinism that keeps women from being recruited at a larger scale (Philip L. Reichel, 2008). The treatment staff in a prison is supposed to take care of the prisoners without being in direct interaction with them. These include the duties as some psychological treatment workers, psychotherapy workers, religious workers, academic staff and the staff hired to provide amusement to the prisoners. In the governmental use model of the prisons, the market for the goods is restricted to the state and local government with control in the hands of the public. A joint venture has a control shared within the state and the public with the prison producers as being private. At a corporate level, the control is more private than being public and is highly unrestricted. Lastly, in the free enterprise model the primary control is private in nature and the market for goods is unrestricted. During the last few decades, the privatization in the prison has been increased. In the U.S, six states have almost 25% of their population of prisons housed as private. This is due to the fact that it is easy for the private sector to construct prisons because they have a better finance and they can have more savings in cost as compared to that of the government. The different treatment strategies that have helped alter the crime-related behavior are the drug and alcohol treatment, prison based therapeutic communities, anger management and lastly the sex offender treatments. The new skills are taught to the inmates’ trough several strategies like the life skills, educational programs and vocational trainings etc. the most important strategy to

Cars History Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Cars History - Research Proposal Example Although work on developing steam engines began in the 17th century, the idea to incorporate it into a road vehicle gained momentum only in the next century. In the course of the 18th century, many futile attempts were made to produce what was yet to be called the ‘car’. To be fair, engineers had indeed developed a few designs for steam-powered road vehicles, but they lacked the popularity and acceptance accorded to steam power in ships and railways. This was primarily because the steam based engine was too heavy for a practical road vehicle. Yet, the 19th century was called the Age of Steam. Harsh legislation was one great bane, at least in a few countries, with virtually strangling speed limits, at 5Â  mph in towns and cities, and 10Â  mph in the country. Laws went as far as directing a man bearing a red flag to precede every vehicle. In addition, tiime curfews applied to all vehicles except street trams. Electric Vehicles were among the earliest ones to be accorded the status of ‘automobiles’. They produce no exhaust fumes and are practically silent. Acceleration exceeds that of conventional vehicles. Sometime in the 1830s Robert Anderson of Scotland supposedly invented the first electric carriage while Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of the Netherlands, designed the small-scale electric car. Electricity as a means for transport propulsion found greater success in the field of public transport such as tramways and streetcars, where a constant supply of electricity was possible by means of overhead power lines. Historically, Electric Vehicles lagged in popularity primarily due to issues with high battery costs, low distance interval between successive recharges, long charging time, and low battery lifespan, etc. But these vehicles are generally cheaper to make and maintain than internal combustion engine vehicles because they have fewer parts. However, around 1900, electric land vehicles in America outsold all other

Logistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Logistics - Essay Example Redetermination barely allows the buyer and seller to reach a firm price prior to production. Supplier’s incentive is primly on cost elements to the detriment of quality interest expressed by the client (Ward 2008).Should the supplier manage to demonstrate actual cost savings, usually when it involves high unit costs, the resultant cost savings from the initial cost targets is shared between the buyer and supplier based on predetermined rate. The fixed-price Contract with Incentives is considered when the two parties won’t agree on an equitable price (Federal Register 1977). Chapter 14 brings out the advantages of fixed-price contracts with incentives over those with redetermination making it relevant to the topic. When two or more parties get together to do business, they form a contract, some sort of a binding legal agreement. Now the contract law is a body of law that governs these agreements whether written or oral. On the other hand, commercial law is a body of law that refers to how the business parties or firms get into a contract with one another and executes the contract. Should any problem arise in the process, the commercial law ensures its remedy. The commercial law is majorly tied to laws regarding agency and contracts. Finally, the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) is not exactly applicable to a business transaction like the other two but rather it comes in at a later stage. The UCC is a model statute used to resolve contract disputes that arise from the sale of goods (LaMance 2013).

How best to improve competition in the banking market Essay - 1

How best to improve competition in the banking market - Essay Example In most cases, application of the efficient structure hypothesis is projected in two primary ways depending on the nature of efficiency considered. When considering the X-efficiency form, the more efficient organizations have relatively lower costs, which results to higher profits and a larger share market. According to WISE, BLINDER & GORDON, (2001), this is true because of presence of superior ability in diminishing production costs. On the other hand, Scale Efficiency form serves the same purpose as the X-efficiency, since it works towards achieving production to the minimum average-cost point. Relationship between quiet Life Hypothesis and efficiency structure If quiet life hypothesis holds, then it implies that, the positive profit structure association is partially offset by cost increase from poorer cost efficiency, which explains why the profit-structure association is weak in numerous banks. A unified approach based on the both quiet life hypothesis, structure hypothesis can be used to define the degree to which competition, and stability in the banking sector is influenced (WISE, BLINDER & GORDON, 2001). ... Relationship between quiet Life Hypothesis and efficiency structure If quiet life hypothesis holds, then it implies that, the positive profit structure association is partially offset by cost increase from poorer cost efficiency, which explains why the profit-structure association is weak in numerous banks. A unified approach based on the both quiet life hypothesis, structure hypothesis can be used to define the degree to which competition, and stability in the banking sector is influenced (WISE, BLINDER & GORDON, 2001). Structure Conduct Performance The SCP studies of banking universally can be subdivided into two primary groups according to the measure of performance (JOHNSON, 2003). The groups include the use of measure of pieces of some banking products and service in order to capture the firm’s performance. The second involves the application of profitability measure such as return on assets or equity. Nonetheless, using the piece of a single product may be misleading sue to the multi-product nature of a bank’s output. On the other hand, profit measure may be more informative, however may exhibit difficulty in comprehending and interpreting due to the complexity of the accounting procedures. Relationship between QLH, ESH and SCP The relationship between market structure and performance treated within the framework of structure-Conduct –Performance (SCP) explains well, the competitive status of a banking system. The SCP closes relates with that efficiency Hypothesis (JOHNSON, 2003). When Efficiency Hypothesis is applied in a banking sector, the hypothesis defines that a bank, which operates more efficiently than its competitors achieve higher gains that results from low operational costs.

King Lear by W. Shakespeare and A Brave New World by A. Huxley Essay

King Lear by W. Shakespeare and A Brave New World by A. Huxley - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that irony, or what happens when something is said, or done, and what happens is the opposite of what was supposed to happen is found in â€Å"King Lear† by Shakespeare, and â€Å"A Brave New World† by Albert Huxley, in more than one place, and in more than one form. In King Lear, a King that does not wish to be King any more splits his kingdom between his three daughters and then attempts to retire. Unfortunately, in splitting his kingdom, he has made a big mistake and must accept the penalty that comes with it. Joining the Lear family is the Earl of Gloucester, with his two sons, Edgar and Edmund, one who is the legal heir to the house, and the other that wants it because he thinks he should have it. In A Brave New World, society is no longer brave, or new, or true to each other. Instead, it has been replaced with a system that, from top to bottom, ensures only the good of what is known as the world-state, but not any one pe rson in it. Throughout both of these stories, there is what is known as spoken irony, or a character saying something opposite of what was meant as they were saying it. There is also irony in different situations when what actually happens is the opposite or different from what someone set out to do. Finally, there is also dramatic irony, when the characters end up doing something that may come back to haunt them. Irony happens right away in the first scenes of King Lear in the form of dramatic irony when Lear commits a rather large error that will cost him dearly.... Though the words of the other two daughters could be used as verbal, or spoken, irony in this case, it is the interaction between Cordelia and Lear that puts the biggest irony on the scene. Dramatic irony happens again right after this when Edmund, the bastard son of Gloucester, schemes to have what he feels he deserves. He says, â€Å"Wherefore should I stand in the plague of custom/and permit the curiosity of nations to deprive me/for that I am some twelve or fourteen moon-shines lag of a brother?† (I.ii. 2-6). Edmund plans to take what he wants, even though he is not the rightful heir, and now everyone reading knows this, but everyone else around him in the play has not been informed. Another example of dramatic irony happens in A Brave New World. Linda, the mother of the savage, tells Bernard and Lenina that her son had a father named â€Å"Tomakin† (Huxley 182). Huxley even tells the readers that â€Å"Yes, Thomas was the D.H.C.’s first name† (Huxley 182). The readers know, then, that the Director actually fathered a child. He had been seen almost from page one telling students and new workers to the central hatchery â€Å"for you must remember, in those days of gross viviparous production, children were always brought up by their parents and not in state conditioning centers† (Huxley 38). It is ironic that the Direct of the Central Hatcheries actually had sex with emotional involvement and fathered a child when he claims that the whole process is â€Å"gross† and a thing of the past. Situational irony, or a situation in which the opposite effect happens than intended, occurs so many times in both of these stories that examples must be chosen, and not listed.

Michael Schmidts Position in Milk Debates Research Paper

Michael Schmidts Position in Milk Debates - Research Paper Example Many people who had become used to consuming raw milk distributed by Michael found it extremely natural.   They claim that it had a flavor, better than any branded milk available at stores.   It also gave them great satisfaction that the milk came from well-cared animals living in an ideal natural farm near neighboring Grey Bruce County (CBC Documentaries).   One web-based discussion titled â€Å"Raw Milk Crusader† cites examples of people who opted for Michael’s milk and stated it offered a number of health benefits including relief from osteoporosis, healing allergies, and unlike pasteurized milk, did not cause constipation (CBC Documentaries). One nature lover Paul Noble, who is perturbed by the intrusion of the government in the issue concerning raw milk, opines, â€Å"if God had intended us to drink pasteurized milk, he would have put a pasteurizer on the cow† (Ananda). On the other hand, there is little doubt among health experts that there is a tangi ble menace in consuming raw milk, particularly for small children.   Milk that is not pasteurized could include a number of harmful bacteria, including campylobacter, listeria, salmonella, brucella, and E. coli 0157: H7 that led to the deaths of seven people in Walkerton in 2000.   Considering this fact, one needs to examine this issue both from a biological and basic human rights point of view.   The problem in simple terms stands as; ‘if someone decides to consume raw milk even after knowing it might harm him should he be prohibited from following his decision?’   Many human rights activists will perhaps disagree.   Rady Ananda in her article â€Å"How Safe Is Your Food?   GMO’s, Foodborne illness and Trade Agreements† are particularly worried about how governments and corporate houses are using the so-called ‘food safety’ to manipulate market access and control.  Ã‚  

Criminology & Criminal Justice BSc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6000 words

Criminology & Criminal Justice BSc - Essay Example The ultimate result of this frustration will lead to withdrawal of co-operation by the victim (Department of Justice 2009, p. 4). Therefore, the co-operation is necessary for the effectiveness of criminal justice system to ensure that it will lead to punishing the offender. Ensuring the credentials of the victim as genuine, does not necessarily mean, will usurp the rights of defendants as enshrined in the fundamental rights. In 1994 rights of victims were neglected badly. This is not the first time in the history of UK when the Liberty has called for greater objectives. According to Zedner (2007), a study reveals no conflict between the rights of defendants and the rights of victims (p. 265). Fair and just trials are the essence of criminal justice system. In order to ensure fair prosecution and to avoid miscarriage of justice, it is incumbent upon the law enforcers to protect the rights of defendants. Review of the European Convention on Human Rights indicates limited protection for victims. It is the duty of the police to provide protection to individuals in general and youngsters in specific from breaching of personal integrity. Failure to protect the victim, the authorities concerned will be held responsible as per law (Zedner 2007, p. 274). It would be in the fitness of things if victims should have more rights than those reflected in the Convention. The charter of victim first come to surface in the year 1990 and revised in the year 1996 clearly defined the fundamental rights of every victim of crime (Shapland 2000, p. 82). By all means, it can be considered a revolutionary step in the legal history of the United Kingdom. The existing Charter fulfils the expectation of a victim. According to Shapland (2000), in case of dissatisfaction, it permits the victim to lodge his or her complaint to an appropriate authority (p 83). Of course, the Charter of Victim is a well thought out document to address the issues and the difficulties faced by the

The Longest Day (World War II) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Longest Day (World War II) - Essay Example Although "The Longest Day" to some extent lacks personality development and the typical film plot that trails the "plight of the hero", it still succeeds to include the watcher in the dreadful actions that encircled the D-Day. The movie depicts to carry all the divides impartially, from the Germans, the United States, French and the British. Â  The film regularly covers the German point of action, and how they are getting ready for the violence against the allies, who were their enemies. What makes this movie so convincing is that it attempts to cover the two sides. The film is approximately two hours and fifty minutes in length with a vast joint of a cast, all playing supportive roles. The performers were at all times of the identical race as their fellow characters, and spoke in their instinctive languages. This mouthwatering film offers the feel of the ‘D-Day’ Offensive, "Operation Overlord" which occurred on June 6th, 1944. This mission involved about three and a ha lf million men, two-thirds of whom were Americans. It shows the horror which was undertaken during the preparation and final assault taking place. An issue of the film was the site of invasion. The movie clearly shows that it was difficult for the Germans to comprehend the day when invasion was to happen (Blouin, Blouin and Rosenberg). The allies echoed the airwaves for several months with coded messages about the expected invasion that was taking the place by surprise. Their main objective was to create or awaken resistance from the French forces (Zanuck). The movie did not show the fact that the French soldiers had been mobilized to start assault on the morning when the allied forces began to attack. Hitler during the attack was asleep and the surprise caught everyone by surprise. Â  The film had many fine performances. One of which involved a brave woman who attacked a German soldier at the railway. In deception, John Wayne's firm, petulant commander retaliating his troops, the courageous, British soldier who hints the first round of attack in the at dark to seize a passage, the UK beach commandant who pushes his troops to stand up because the organizations charm is in vulnerability. This scene shows "Winston", the talisman and friend of the beach frontrunner, and the quarrelsome, pessimistic German; Luftwaffe pilot, who constantly is in worry for his weary superiors (A&E Television Networks, LLC). The play’s act was very informative. Â  One of the German high command officers wondered if the allies were on their way to attack the ‘Pas de Calais’ in the place of Normandy. They seem troubled and worried, and tried but were deprived of attainment to reach Adolf Hitler. They made a wrong choice to let German troops under their control stay on base. The German High official in France ascertained that the Allied strategy of attack would finish them off. The movie started by covering a short background of political and military leaders that led the invasion (A&E Television Networks, LLC). One of the notable civilian scenes was when a German soldier goes to French dairy rancher and orders him to give up his milk and leaves on a mule. These actions made the French inhabitants very angry (Blouin, Blouin and Rosenberg). Later on, same French dairy rancher overhears the commencement of the scuffle and the weaponry blasts; he opens his door and praises the Allies. This movie heavily embedded in the allies’

Symbols as Used in the Things They Carried Essay Example for Free

Symbols as Used in the Things They Carried Essay The use of symbolism in this story is really amazing. Using the items soldiers tend to take with them to combat zone Tim O’Brien is able to tell a lot about what really soldiers have in mind, their characters and even what might be going on in their personal life. I find this a story interesting to me because when I was deployed I carried things to keep me going. Personal little items I carried with me had a meaning. In this story, although the writer is talking about things that soldiers carried with them, he is passing a message with a different meaning. He is not just telling an interesting story but also describes each of the main characters by telling the readers what these characters carry. Some of the characters carried things demanded by necessity and while some carried emotions and love. All these things they carried symbolized something. In this story, the writer is able to show in detail, each of the soldiers’ ways of dealing with the stresses of war by what they choose to carry. The writer calls this â€Å"humps†. Lt Jimmy Cross carrying love letters symbolizes how desperate these soldiers are for love. Lt Jimmy is dealing with the devastations of war by pretending that a girl called Martha is in love with him even though he knows that she is not. He would vividly fantasize, imagine and even got carried away by Martha. Clearly affection and love was Lt Jimmy’s way of escaping the horrors of everyday. Mitchell Sanders the RTO and Henry Dobbins escape the reality of war by fantasizing about sex. Mitchell Sanders for example carries condoms and tiger fatigues while Henry Dobbins has his girlfriend’s pantyhose â€Å"around his neck as a comforter. Rat Kiley on the other hand carries comic books as an escape. The New Testament Bible carried by Kiowa symbolizes religion and the solid foundation of what the soldiers believe in. The use of tranquilizers by Ted Lavender symbolizes fear and how painful the death can be. Carrying lice and diseases and they still survive shows how these soldiers were strong and how the living conditions were horrible. The use of poncho in carrying the dead body symbolizes the creativity of the soldiers and how equipment can be modified to perform more than one function. Normal Bowker carrying a thumb symbolizes these soldiers’ minds, body and spirit have dissociated. Carrying a thumb which had been cut from a corpse symbolizes numbness and emotionless. Soldiers marching for the sake of marching and with no purpose and no winning or losing symbolizes that they were just doing what they are ordered to do by the government. They left supplies wherever they go since they knew that the chopper will supply them with more equipment the following day. This symbolizes how financially the government is and how resources are being wasted in times of war. Lt Jimmy after blaming himself for the dead of Lavender he decided that he will start instilling discipline and avoid living the things they carried or throwing away the equipment. This may represent a larger group of citizens back at home who are opposing wasteful spending.

Explain Each of the Terms Essay Example for Free

Explain Each of the Terms Essay Explain Each of the Terms: Speech, Language, Communication and Speech Language and Communication Needs. Explain each of the terms speech, language, communication, speech, language and communication needs. EYMP5 (1. 1) The dictionary explanation of speech is â€Å"The expression of or the ability to express thoughts and feelings by articulate sounds† or â€Å"A persons style of speaking† To speak is to physically be able to produce the individual sounds and sound patterns of our language, or articulate, to be able to produce speech with appropriate rhythm, and free of stuttering behaviour, and to produce speech with an appropriate vocal quality for age and sex. While speech involves the physical motor ability to talk, language is a symbolic, rule governed system used to convey a message. In English, the symbols can be words, either spoken or written. We also have gestural symbols, like shrugging our shoulders to indicate â€Å"I don’t know† or waving to indicate â€Å"Bye Bye† or the raising of our eye brows to show that we are surprised by something. Language can be defined as being made up of socially shared rules that include the following: †¢What words mean (e. g. , â€Å"star† can refer to a bright object in the night sky or a celebrity) †¢How to make new words (e. g. , friend, friendly, unfriendly) †¢How to put words together (e. g. , â€Å"Peg walked to the new store† rather than â€Å"Peg walk store new†) What word combinations are best in what situations (â€Å"Would you mind moving your foot? could quickly change to â€Å"Get off my foot, please! † if the first request did not produce results) You can have language without having speech. Though speech and language are related, you do not have to have speech to have a language. How? The best example of this is the use of Sign Language. Communication is the process of conveying a message or meaning to establish a shared understanding to others. You don’t need speech or a shared language to communicate. How? Let’s say you decide on a trip to Rome, but you don’t speak one word of Italian. You get off your plane, and you want to pick up your [continues]

Critical Success Factors in Supply Chain Management

Critical Success Factors in Supply Chain Management ABSTRACT In todays turbulent economic environment, firms are striving for ways to achieve competitive advantage. One of the approaches is to manage the entire supply chain to reduce costs and improve performance to create competitive advantage and business success. This dissertation explores and investigates how high technology firms use supply chain management to gain competitive advantage and increase business success. The research objective is to determine the critical success factors in supply chain management at high technology companies. This dissertation provides a theoretical framework to understand a firms performance and argues that supply chain management will help a firm to be competitive and successful. To this end, the critical success factors that make a company more competitive are identified. The research design is based on the established and recommended procedures of multiple case study research methodology; and this methodology is used to gather data from five companies in California, USA. The analysis is based primarily on cross-case analysis for the purpose of theoretical generalization about the research issues. The results identify two clusters of company behavior and characteristics, specifically traditional ‘old style manufacturing companies and progressive manufacturing companies. Each cluster of company behaves differently. At the traditional manufacturing companies, the selection of critical supply chain management factors is internally focused on factors that are manufacturing and quality focused, while at the progressive manufacturing companies the selection of critical supply chain management factors is externally focused on factors that are directed to customers and information systems. There are differences between critical supply chain management factors at high technology companies and benchmark (or commodity) companies that were selected in this study. The benchmark companies select supply chain management factors that focus on customer services and quality. This approach is, possibly, due to the fact that the benchmark companies deal in commodity type products and hence they have to focus on differentiating themselves through strong customer services and quality products. Additionally, with the help of supply chain metrics, financial performance data, and understanding the various companies, it is possible to determine which critical supply chain factors best can contribute to business performance. At the case study companies, an external focus on supply chain management factors such as a strong focus on customer relationship and management, gives better business results. Finally, this study has proposed a novel and new approach to improving customer satisfaction by using QFD methodology to identify performance gaps (and opportunities) from the customers viewpoint in supply chain management. If the companies wish to increase customer satisfaction, they have to use the QFD methodology to identify critical supply chain factors. The reason is primarily because performance gaps derived from customer needs emphasize what the customer wants and that is different from the internal perceptions of a companys managers. The initiatives that provide the greatest opportunity have been identified in this analysis. Overall, these findings can be used by high technology firms to select supply chain strategies that will lead to sustainable competitive advantage and hence improve their brand and business performance. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The genesis of this dissertation was a request from a high technology company to investigate the companys supply chain system and identify factors affecting the successful implementation of supply chain management. This chapter serves as an introduction to the dissertation. It comprises eight sections, which cover the background to the research, objective of the research and the research questions, justification and significance of the research, a brief description of the methodology, an outline of the structure of the study, key definitions, delimitations of this research, and the chapters conclusion. 1.1 Background A firms strategies, innovations, and well-planned activities will lead to sustainable competitive advantage and hence improve its brand and business performance. As firms strive for ways to achieve competitive advantage, they are looking for new ideas and solutions. This dissertation addresses the topic of competitive advantage, reviews how firms attempt to achieve it, and focuses on one aspect of competitive advantage managing the supply chain to increase competitive advantage and business success. The early understanding of competitive advantage is based on Leon Walras (1874, 1984) theory of perfect competition. In perfect competition products are homogenous, consumers and producers have perfect information, prices will reach equilibrium, and as a result profits are zero in the long run. A later approach is the Industrial Organization approach (Tirole, 1988), which argues that success comes from market power and a firms efficiency. However, the proponents of this approach agree that in the long term there would be industry equilibrium and little profit. One of the first researchers to propose a theoretical framework for understanding a firms performance is Michael Porter (1980). He takes a strategic and analytical approach to understanding competitive strategy, and argues that, â€Å"Every firm competing in an industry has a competitive strategy, whether explicit or implicit.† Porter asserts that, except for microeconomic theory, the strategy field and literature had offered few analytical techniques for gaining this understanding. Porter (1980) argues that with the right approach it is possible to break away from the economic equilibrium situation and achieve superior performance. Therefore he proposes a framework for analyzing industries and competitors and describes three generic strategies cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. He postulates that to be successful, the firm has to do well in one or more of these strategies. Porters (1980) ideas and proposals on achieving competitive advantage have influenced many other researchers to propose complementary theories on achieving competitive advantage. All the theories proposed by researchers are supported with examples of winning strategies implemented at renowned companies. The theories include an emphasis on planning (Porter, 1980, 1985), strategic approach (Hamel and Prahalad, 1990, 1998; Porter, 1985, 1990, 1991), marketing strategies (Day, 1994, 1999), value chain management (Porter, 1985), and supply chain management (Christopher, 1998; Poirier, 1999; Tyndall et al., 1998). A theory that has gained momentum in the last few years is the concept of supply chain management. In recent years, there have been numerous advances and developments in supply chain techniques and management. One of the reasons is that as trade barriers drop and markets open, competition has become more intense hence companies need to be more competitive and cost effective. An initiative to help achieve this is a supply chain management program. Supply chain management is the management of upstream and downstream activities, resources, and relationships with suppliers and customers, which is required to deliver products or services. In theory, if this is done well it will lead to competitive advantage through differentiation and lower costs as suggested by Porter (1980). Moreover, some researchers claim that effective supply chain management can reduce costs by several percentage points of revenue (Boyson, et. al, 1999). Furthermore, there has been little verification or research d one on measuring competitive advantage gained through supply chain management. Supply chain management is not a static concept or solution. Instead, new advances and techniques for supply chain management continue to mushroom. This tremendous growth in new ideas and processes is starting to influence and change the business processes and models of companies. Hence companies have many choices in selecting programs in supply chain management. In making their choices, companies need to plan for effective supply chain management, in order to gain competitive advantage. However, to ensure that effective supply chain management can provide business success, this study must determine the critical success factors in supply chain management that can provide competitive advantage. Furthermore, these critical success factors must be identified and conveyed to senior management in firms that want to have an effective supply chain management program. 1.2 Objective of this research The objective of this dissertation is to explore and investigate how firms scope, design, and implement supply chain management in order to gain competitive advantage. Most importantly, this dissertation endeavors to determine the critical success factors in supply chain management that can provide competitive advantage. It also explores and investigates the advances and new ideas in supply chain management and examines how firms scope, design, and implement supply chain management in order to gain competitive advantage. The genesis of this dissertation was a request from a high technology company to investigate the companys supply chain system and propose improvements to help make it more competitive. The company is headquartered in California USA, and this author works for one of the companys business unit as General Manager for Distribution. The request was to investigate the companys supply chain management system and to propose improvements that would make it more competitive This dissertation provides a theoretical framework to understand a firms performance and argues that supply chain management is an approach that will help a firm to be competitive and successful. Furthermore, in using supply chain management, firms are faced with choices on what supply chain techniques and developments to adopt for their businesses. This dissertation wil review the choices that high technology companies have today, and will make recommendations to select the best choices, or critical success factors, based on business and customer needs. Therefore, the research objective is to: Determine the critical success factors in supply chain management at high technology companies. In fulfilling this objective, this dissertation also addresses the following research issues: 1. Are there differences between critical supply chain management factors at various high technology companies? 2. Are there differences between critical supply chain management factors at high technology companies and non high technology (or benchmark commodity) companies? 3. Will a focus on external supply chain management factors give better business results? 4. Are perceived critical gaps (and opportunities) in performance derived from traditional methodology similar to those deployed from customer needs? In this study, the critical success factors to make a company more competitive are identified. To ensure a robust analysis and conclusion, the expectations and perceptions of respondents, involved in this study, are taken into consideration as well as customer requirements. 1.3 Significance of the research There are many theories and empirical studies on competitive advantage. However, the empirical studies, using mathematical models, tend to be limited in scope (Porter, 1991; Buzzel and Gale, 1990), and do not include supply chain management parameters. While there has been much research on activities that can provide competitive advantage, there is little knowledge on the process of selection and impact of supply chain management on the competitive position and business performance of a high technology firm. Firms need to understand how supply chain management can help them achieve competitive advantage. Furthermore, there is an expectation that high technology companies will use leading edge technology and invest heavily in supply chain management. This dissertation makes the following contributions: 1. Fulfils a request from a high technology company: The author of this study works for a high technology company, head-quartered in California USA, and was requested to investigate the companys (business unit) supply chain system and propose improvements to help make it more competitive. 2. Identifies the critical success factors in supply chain management from a high technology companys viewpoint. Often when reviewing critical success factors, only the perception of respondents is taken into account. However, in this analysis both the perceptions and expectations of respondents are taken into consideration. Such an analysis will be more robust and will allow performance gaps to be analyzed and understood. 3. Identifies the critical success factors in supply chain management from customers of high technology companies. To enhance the relevance of the conclusions, customer requirements are also taken into consideration by using the quality function deployment (QFD) methodology and these are compared to the high technology companies performance gaps. Such an analysis will allow performance gaps to be analyzed and understood from the viewpoint of customers of high technology companies. 4. Contributes to the understanding of how high technology companies scope, design, and develop their supply chain management system. 1.4 Research Methodology This study employs the qualitative research process using multiple case studies. There are several reasons for this: Since the focus of this research is on high technology companies operating in California, USA, there is a concern that there will be a small number of companies willing to participate in a large (sample size) quantitative survey. Furthermore face-to-face meetings with respondents can help provide understanding and information on several qualitative areas, such as: reasons for implementing specific supply chain factors (or strategies), customer needs data, and discussions and feedback on the questionnaire. Also, cases can be viewed and studied alone and across cases to provide comparison and contrast and richer details and insights regarding the research issues (Eisenhardt 1989; Stake 1994; Yin 1994). Hence this research will be done via a multiple case study approach using structured interviews with a questionnaire (Yin, 1994).5 1.5 Structure of the dissertation In addition to this introductory chapter, this dissertation consists of four chapters ( 1.1). Chapter 2 reviews the relevant literature, addresses the disciplines under investigation, and provides an overview of competitive advantage. The chapter then provides a detailed review of the current literature and practices of supply chain management. With that as the background, chapter 2 continues into identifying gaps in the literature and provides the rationale for selecting the research topic and issues. Chapter 5Conclusion and opportunities for further researchChapter 1IntroductionChapter 3Research methodologyChapter 2Literature review and research issuesChapter 4Data analysis and interpretationsChapter interpretations Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology used for this study and it includes: the justification of the research methodology, a discussion on preparation of the questionnaire and the data gathering process, the process used for data analysis and determining gaps, the process used to generate recommendations from the data, and concludes with a discussion on the limitations of case study research. Chapter 4 summarizes the data collected from the selected companies and respondents and aims to interpret the data in relation to the research objective. Each of the four research issues is analyzed, interpreted, and the detailed findings are presented. The chapter concludes with a summary of the research findings. Chapter 5 provides a summary of the findings and conclusions of the research objective and issues, discusses the contribution of the research findings to the literature and theory, reviews the implications of the findings, discusses the limitations of the research, and concludes with suggested direction for future research. 1.6 Key definitions Definitions adopted by researchers are often not uniform; hence key terms are defined to establish positions taken for this dissertation (Perry 1998). This will ensure that subsequent research, undertaken at a later stage, will better measure and compare what this dissertation has set out to do. †¢ Logistics: The management and movement of product and services, including storage and warehousing, and their transport via air, land, and water (Coyle, Bardi, and Langley, 1988). †¢ Supply chain: Consists of all inter-linked resources and activities needed to create and deliver products and services to customers (Hakanson, 1999). †¢ Supply chain management: This includes managing supply and demand, sourcing raw materials and parts, manufacturing and assembly, distribution across all channels, and delivery to the customer (Supply Chain Council, 2001). †¢ Supply chain agility or agile supply chain: An agile supply chain is one that is flexible and has a business-wide capability that embraces organizational structures, information systems, and logistics processes. (Christopher, 2000) †¢ Critical success factors (CSF): Critical success factors are those few things that must go well to ensure success for a manager or organization, and therefore may represent those managerial or enterprise areas that must be given continual attention. CSFs include issues vital to an organizations current operating activities and to its future success (Boynton and Zmud, 1984). †¢ Customer relationship management (CRM): CRM is the management of technology, processes, information, and people in order to maximize each customer contact by obtaining a 360-degree view of the customer (Galbreath and Rogers, 1999). †¢ Performance gap: This is a gap between the perceived performance and the expected importance of a factor (in this dissertation it is a supply chain factor). The performance gap provides an indication as to whether executives and managers are successful in translating their vision to their employees and hence such perception may give an indication regarding the degree of employees alignment with the organizations vision. If a factor is critical and has a negative value of factor alignment (perceived performance is less than the expectation), then the organization may have a potential problem with that factor. Information on factor alignment allows executives to develop a strategy to overcome the challenges associated with the gaps between importance and performance. (Martilla and James, 1977). †¢ Quality Function Deployment (QFD): QFD is a comprehensive quality tool that can be used to uncover customers spoken and unspoken needs, and convert these needs to product or service design targets and processes (Akao, 1990). 1.7 Delimitation There are several delimitations in this dissertation. †¢ The theoretical model derived from this dissertation is only applicable to the high technology companies. †¢ The dissertation is focused on companies operating geographically in California, United States of America, where there is a concentration of high technology companies. †¢ This dissertation is an exploratory research and will have to be tested for generalizability in later, more extensive, quantitative research (Perry, 1998). †¢ There is no scientific basis for choosing the number of cases in this dissertation. The number selected is based on the experiences and recommendations of the research and academic community (Eisenhardt, 1989; Perry, 1998). 1.8 Conclusion This chapter provides an overview of the dissertation. The aim, objectives, and justification of the research topic were discussed. The dissertation is an investigation on the impact of a supply chain management system on the competitive position of high technology business firms. It explores and investigates new ideas in supply chain management and examines how high technology firms manage and improve their supply chain management system. Furthermore, this dissertation will analyze the gaps and opportunities for supply chain management in high technology companies and give a set of recommendations. The methodology was briefly described, key definitions were explained, delimitations of this research were addressed, and the structure of the dissertation was outlined. With all the important areas of the research briefly introduced in this chapter, the following four chapters of this dissertation will present detailed description and findings of the research topic. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH ISSUES The previous chapter provided an overview of the dissertation and listed the objective, issues, and significance of the research topic. This chapter reviews the relevant literature and comprises of six sections. The review starts with a discussion on early approaches to understanding a firms performance and its competitive advantage. This is followed by the development of a theoretical framework and a discussion on contemporary approaches to competitive advantage. Next there is a discussion on supply chain management, followed by an overview of advanced supply chain management systems. The last two sections conclude with a discussion on gaps in the literature, identification of areas for further research, and the summary. 2.1 Early approaches to understanding a firms performance and competitive advantage One of the earliest (chronologically) approaches to competitive advantage is the microeconomic approach, or the idea of perfect competition (Walras, 1874, 1969). In perfect competition products are homogenous, consumers and producers have perfect information, prices will reach equilibrium, and as a result profits are negligible or low in the long run. However, according to Gill (1991), such a perfect economy is an abstraction, because there are monopolies, oligopolies, and perfect competition. Furthermore, there are also two kinds of competition: spatial and monopolistic. Spatial differentiation pertains to oligopolistic competition (Hotelling, 1929), and it meets consumers different tastes. Monopolistic competition assumes that small firms produce a variety of differentiated products (Chamberlin, 1933; in Gill, 1991). All these situations allow for profit maximization and higher profits (Gill, 1991). The industrial organization (IO) approach takes a richer approach to understanding a firms successful performance. IO differs from the microeconomic approach by introducing variables that explain real-world economic behavior. In IO, there are two competing hypothesis that lead to higher profits and success market power and a firms efficiency (Scherer, 1990; Tirole, 1988). Nevertheless, the IO approach assumes that markets and firms will reach equilibrium, and in equilibrium profits differences will not exist (Tirole, 1988). Both the microeconomic approach and the industrial organization approach assume that all firms would reach equilibrium and have equal profit and success. However, we know from a daily look at many firms performance on the stock market that profit and performance vary across firms, even when they are in the same business. Eaton and Lipsey (1978) have verified that differences in performance and profit exist between firms. 2.2 Contemporary approaches to achieving competitive advantage 2.2.1 Framework to understanding a firms performance One of the first researchers to propose a theoretical framework for understanding a firms performance is Porter (1980). He takes a strategic and analytical approach to understanding competitive strategy, and argued that, â€Å"Every firm competing in an industry has a competitive strategy, whether explicit or implicit† (Porter, 1980, p. xiii). He proposes a framework for analyzing industries and competitors and describes three generic strategies cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. He postulates that if a firm is able to do well in any of these strategies, it will gain competitive advantage. Porters concept is illustrated in 2-1. Generic Competitive Strategies†¢Overall cost leadership†¢Differentiation†¢FocusCompetitive Advantageof a Firm †¢ Cost leadership requires efficient-scale facilities, pursuit of cost reductions, and cost minimization in all areas of the firm. This will give more profit. †¢ Differentiation of product or service requires industry-wide differentiation, including design and brand image, customer service, and distribution or dealer network. Product or service differentiation will help increase customer loyalty and ensure repurchase. †¢ Focus on markets, buyers, or product lines can maximize profits. The framework, in 2-1, shows that the right strategies can provide competitive advantage. Porter (1985) also argues that competitive advantage come from the many discrete activities a firm performs in designing, producing, marketing, delivering, and supporting its product. Each of these activities contributes to a firms relative cost position and creates a basis for differentiation. This is the value chain, and a firm has to disaggregate its strategically relevant activities in order to understand the behavior of costs and the existing and potential sources of differentiation. A firm gains competitive advantage by performing these strategically important activities cheaper or better than its competitors (Porter, 1985), and this can lead to a higher profit margin. The value chain concept is illustrated in 2-2. Profit Margin Outbound Logistics Manufacturing Operations, and other Internal Processes Inbound Logistics Procurement Human Resource Management Technology Development Firm Infrastructure and Platform Services Customer Service Marketing and Sales Primary Activities Support Activities Supply Chain Approach Strategic Planning Approach Marketing Capabilities Approach The Value Chain and Theoretical Framework to Achieve Competitive Advantage Adapted from Porter (1985) and this literature review. Note 1: Key approaches to competitive advantage are highlighted with underlined Characters Note 2: The definition of supply chain implies all activities necessary to deliver a product (Hakanson, 1999). Therefore sales, marketing, and customer service activities can be construed as part of the supply chain approach shown in the . In this study, sales and marketing processes, such as demand management, order processing, and customer relationship management are included in the internal processes shown in the and in the supply chain literature review. However, sales and marketing activity, such as sales calls, advertising, product positioning, market research, and some post delivery support processes are excluded from supply chain activity. This is consistent with the approach taken by the Supply Chain Council and the SCOR (Supply Chain Operational Reference) model it uses to measure supply chain activity (Supply Chain Council, 2001). 2.2.2 Summary of contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Porters approach presents new thinking to competitive advantage (Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece, 1991) and has influenced other approaches to creating competitive advantage. Many of the other approaches to competitive advantage are summarized in Table 2-1. From the table, it can be seen that all the approaches to increasing competitive advantage, except for the early microeconomic and industrial organization approaches, fit the theoretical framework in 2-2. However, all these approaches to competitive advantage are complementary and not alternatives or conflicting theories they basically propose various segments of the theoretical framework shown in 2-2. The various approaches are discussed very briefly below, but the last approach (in Table 2-1), Supply Chain Management, is discussed in greater detail. 2.2.3 The strategic planning approach In essence, Porters (1980, 1985) approaches are strategic planning approaches, i.e. a firms competitive advantage can be planned for. This includes planning for differentiation in the value chain, low cost leadership, and focus. Nations can also be competitive (Porter, 1990). Nations need four conditions to gain competitive advantage and be successful. The four conditions are: factor conditions (education and skill levels), demand conditions (or market size), related and supporting industries, and company strategy and rivalry (Porter, 1990). Strategy is â€Å"lucky foresight†¦Strategy is always the product of a complex and unexpected interplay between ideas, information, personalities, and desire† according to Hamel (1998). What this implies is that one does not settle for obvious solutions and strategies but should look at alternatives, challenge assumptions, and look at new ways of delivering superior customer value and firm performance. Table 2-1 Summary of early and contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Approach Proponent Main idea/postulate Comments Microeconomic Walras (1874, 1984) Perfect competition results in negligible profits Ideas ignore monopolies, oligopolies, and product differentiation. Profit does vary across firms according to Eaton and Lipsey (1978). Industrial Organization Scherer (1990), Tirole (1988) Success comes from market power and a firms efficiency. All proponents agree that in the long term there will be industry equilibrium and little profit. Porter (1980) Porter (1985) Provides a framework for achieving competitive advantage. Every firm has a generic competitive strategy in cost leadership, market focus, or differentiation. The value chain disaggregates a firm into its strategically relevant activities. A firm gains competitive advantage by performing these important activities better than its competitors. Challenges the stereotype approach of perfect competition and industry equilibrium. Provides a prescriptive approach to achieve competitive advantage, but the ideas and solutions are essentially conceptual. Hamel (1998) Strategy is the product of a complex and unexpected interplay between ideas, information, personalities, and desire. A firm has to seek alternatives and new ways of delivering superior customer value and firm performance. The Strategic Approach and its Variations Value Chain Approach Strategic Approach Resource Based Approach Wernerfelt (1984), Barney (1991), Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece (1991). A firm has to identify specific, or rare, resources that lead to higher profits. Long-term superior performance comes from building product market positions that effectively utilize and maintain these resources. Examples of such resources include customer loyalty, and technological leads. If the resources are unique and difficult to duplicate, then the firm achieves competitive advantage. Table 2-1 (Continued) Summary of early and contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Approach Proponent Main idea/postulate Comments Market Strategy Marketing Capabilities Approach Resource-Advantage Theory Product Differentiation Day (1994,1999), Cool and Dierickx (1989), Aaker (1989), Caves and Ghemawat (1986). Also, Buzzell an Critical Success Factors in Supply Chain Management Critical Success Factors in Supply Chain Management ABSTRACT In todays turbulent economic environment, firms are striving for ways to achieve competitive advantage. One of the approaches is to manage the entire supply chain to reduce costs and improve performance to create competitive advantage and business success. This dissertation explores and investigates how high technology firms use supply chain management to gain competitive advantage and increase business success. The research objective is to determine the critical success factors in supply chain management at high technology companies. This dissertation provides a theoretical framework to understand a firms performance and argues that supply chain management will help a firm to be competitive and successful. To this end, the critical success factors that make a company more competitive are identified. The research design is based on the established and recommended procedures of multiple case study research methodology; and this methodology is used to gather data from five companies in California, USA. The analysis is based primarily on cross-case analysis for the purpose of theoretical generalization about the research issues. The results identify two clusters of company behavior and characteristics, specifically traditional ‘old style manufacturing companies and progressive manufacturing companies. Each cluster of company behaves differently. At the traditional manufacturing companies, the selection of critical supply chain management factors is internally focused on factors that are manufacturing and quality focused, while at the progressive manufacturing companies the selection of critical supply chain management factors is externally focused on factors that are directed to customers and information systems. There are differences between critical supply chain management factors at high technology companies and benchmark (or commodity) companies that were selected in this study. The benchmark companies select supply chain management factors that focus on customer services and quality. This approach is, possibly, due to the fact that the benchmark companies deal in commodity type products and hence they have to focus on differentiating themselves through strong customer services and quality products. Additionally, with the help of supply chain metrics, financial performance data, and understanding the various companies, it is possible to determine which critical supply chain factors best can contribute to business performance. At the case study companies, an external focus on supply chain management factors such as a strong focus on customer relationship and management, gives better business results. Finally, this study has proposed a novel and new approach to improving customer satisfaction by using QFD methodology to identify performance gaps (and opportunities) from the customers viewpoint in supply chain management. If the companies wish to increase customer satisfaction, they have to use the QFD methodology to identify critical supply chain factors. The reason is primarily because performance gaps derived from customer needs emphasize what the customer wants and that is different from the internal perceptions of a companys managers. The initiatives that provide the greatest opportunity have been identified in this analysis. Overall, these findings can be used by high technology firms to select supply chain strategies that will lead to sustainable competitive advantage and hence improve their brand and business performance. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The genesis of this dissertation was a request from a high technology company to investigate the companys supply chain system and identify factors affecting the successful implementation of supply chain management. This chapter serves as an introduction to the dissertation. It comprises eight sections, which cover the background to the research, objective of the research and the research questions, justification and significance of the research, a brief description of the methodology, an outline of the structure of the study, key definitions, delimitations of this research, and the chapters conclusion. 1.1 Background A firms strategies, innovations, and well-planned activities will lead to sustainable competitive advantage and hence improve its brand and business performance. As firms strive for ways to achieve competitive advantage, they are looking for new ideas and solutions. This dissertation addresses the topic of competitive advantage, reviews how firms attempt to achieve it, and focuses on one aspect of competitive advantage managing the supply chain to increase competitive advantage and business success. The early understanding of competitive advantage is based on Leon Walras (1874, 1984) theory of perfect competition. In perfect competition products are homogenous, consumers and producers have perfect information, prices will reach equilibrium, and as a result profits are zero in the long run. A later approach is the Industrial Organization approach (Tirole, 1988), which argues that success comes from market power and a firms efficiency. However, the proponents of this approach agree that in the long term there would be industry equilibrium and little profit. One of the first researchers to propose a theoretical framework for understanding a firms performance is Michael Porter (1980). He takes a strategic and analytical approach to understanding competitive strategy, and argues that, â€Å"Every firm competing in an industry has a competitive strategy, whether explicit or implicit.† Porter asserts that, except for microeconomic theory, the strategy field and literature had offered few analytical techniques for gaining this understanding. Porter (1980) argues that with the right approach it is possible to break away from the economic equilibrium situation and achieve superior performance. Therefore he proposes a framework for analyzing industries and competitors and describes three generic strategies cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. He postulates that to be successful, the firm has to do well in one or more of these strategies. Porters (1980) ideas and proposals on achieving competitive advantage have influenced many other researchers to propose complementary theories on achieving competitive advantage. All the theories proposed by researchers are supported with examples of winning strategies implemented at renowned companies. The theories include an emphasis on planning (Porter, 1980, 1985), strategic approach (Hamel and Prahalad, 1990, 1998; Porter, 1985, 1990, 1991), marketing strategies (Day, 1994, 1999), value chain management (Porter, 1985), and supply chain management (Christopher, 1998; Poirier, 1999; Tyndall et al., 1998). A theory that has gained momentum in the last few years is the concept of supply chain management. In recent years, there have been numerous advances and developments in supply chain techniques and management. One of the reasons is that as trade barriers drop and markets open, competition has become more intense hence companies need to be more competitive and cost effective. An initiative to help achieve this is a supply chain management program. Supply chain management is the management of upstream and downstream activities, resources, and relationships with suppliers and customers, which is required to deliver products or services. In theory, if this is done well it will lead to competitive advantage through differentiation and lower costs as suggested by Porter (1980). Moreover, some researchers claim that effective supply chain management can reduce costs by several percentage points of revenue (Boyson, et. al, 1999). Furthermore, there has been little verification or research d one on measuring competitive advantage gained through supply chain management. Supply chain management is not a static concept or solution. Instead, new advances and techniques for supply chain management continue to mushroom. This tremendous growth in new ideas and processes is starting to influence and change the business processes and models of companies. Hence companies have many choices in selecting programs in supply chain management. In making their choices, companies need to plan for effective supply chain management, in order to gain competitive advantage. However, to ensure that effective supply chain management can provide business success, this study must determine the critical success factors in supply chain management that can provide competitive advantage. Furthermore, these critical success factors must be identified and conveyed to senior management in firms that want to have an effective supply chain management program. 1.2 Objective of this research The objective of this dissertation is to explore and investigate how firms scope, design, and implement supply chain management in order to gain competitive advantage. Most importantly, this dissertation endeavors to determine the critical success factors in supply chain management that can provide competitive advantage. It also explores and investigates the advances and new ideas in supply chain management and examines how firms scope, design, and implement supply chain management in order to gain competitive advantage. The genesis of this dissertation was a request from a high technology company to investigate the companys supply chain system and propose improvements to help make it more competitive. The company is headquartered in California USA, and this author works for one of the companys business unit as General Manager for Distribution. The request was to investigate the companys supply chain management system and to propose improvements that would make it more competitive This dissertation provides a theoretical framework to understand a firms performance and argues that supply chain management is an approach that will help a firm to be competitive and successful. Furthermore, in using supply chain management, firms are faced with choices on what supply chain techniques and developments to adopt for their businesses. This dissertation wil review the choices that high technology companies have today, and will make recommendations to select the best choices, or critical success factors, based on business and customer needs. Therefore, the research objective is to: Determine the critical success factors in supply chain management at high technology companies. In fulfilling this objective, this dissertation also addresses the following research issues: 1. Are there differences between critical supply chain management factors at various high technology companies? 2. Are there differences between critical supply chain management factors at high technology companies and non high technology (or benchmark commodity) companies? 3. Will a focus on external supply chain management factors give better business results? 4. Are perceived critical gaps (and opportunities) in performance derived from traditional methodology similar to those deployed from customer needs? In this study, the critical success factors to make a company more competitive are identified. To ensure a robust analysis and conclusion, the expectations and perceptions of respondents, involved in this study, are taken into consideration as well as customer requirements. 1.3 Significance of the research There are many theories and empirical studies on competitive advantage. However, the empirical studies, using mathematical models, tend to be limited in scope (Porter, 1991; Buzzel and Gale, 1990), and do not include supply chain management parameters. While there has been much research on activities that can provide competitive advantage, there is little knowledge on the process of selection and impact of supply chain management on the competitive position and business performance of a high technology firm. Firms need to understand how supply chain management can help them achieve competitive advantage. Furthermore, there is an expectation that high technology companies will use leading edge technology and invest heavily in supply chain management. This dissertation makes the following contributions: 1. Fulfils a request from a high technology company: The author of this study works for a high technology company, head-quartered in California USA, and was requested to investigate the companys (business unit) supply chain system and propose improvements to help make it more competitive. 2. Identifies the critical success factors in supply chain management from a high technology companys viewpoint. Often when reviewing critical success factors, only the perception of respondents is taken into account. However, in this analysis both the perceptions and expectations of respondents are taken into consideration. Such an analysis will be more robust and will allow performance gaps to be analyzed and understood. 3. Identifies the critical success factors in supply chain management from customers of high technology companies. To enhance the relevance of the conclusions, customer requirements are also taken into consideration by using the quality function deployment (QFD) methodology and these are compared to the high technology companies performance gaps. Such an analysis will allow performance gaps to be analyzed and understood from the viewpoint of customers of high technology companies. 4. Contributes to the understanding of how high technology companies scope, design, and develop their supply chain management system. 1.4 Research Methodology This study employs the qualitative research process using multiple case studies. There are several reasons for this: Since the focus of this research is on high technology companies operating in California, USA, there is a concern that there will be a small number of companies willing to participate in a large (sample size) quantitative survey. Furthermore face-to-face meetings with respondents can help provide understanding and information on several qualitative areas, such as: reasons for implementing specific supply chain factors (or strategies), customer needs data, and discussions and feedback on the questionnaire. Also, cases can be viewed and studied alone and across cases to provide comparison and contrast and richer details and insights regarding the research issues (Eisenhardt 1989; Stake 1994; Yin 1994). Hence this research will be done via a multiple case study approach using structured interviews with a questionnaire (Yin, 1994).5 1.5 Structure of the dissertation In addition to this introductory chapter, this dissertation consists of four chapters ( 1.1). Chapter 2 reviews the relevant literature, addresses the disciplines under investigation, and provides an overview of competitive advantage. The chapter then provides a detailed review of the current literature and practices of supply chain management. With that as the background, chapter 2 continues into identifying gaps in the literature and provides the rationale for selecting the research topic and issues. Chapter 5Conclusion and opportunities for further researchChapter 1IntroductionChapter 3Research methodologyChapter 2Literature review and research issuesChapter 4Data analysis and interpretationsChapter interpretations Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology used for this study and it includes: the justification of the research methodology, a discussion on preparation of the questionnaire and the data gathering process, the process used for data analysis and determining gaps, the process used to generate recommendations from the data, and concludes with a discussion on the limitations of case study research. Chapter 4 summarizes the data collected from the selected companies and respondents and aims to interpret the data in relation to the research objective. Each of the four research issues is analyzed, interpreted, and the detailed findings are presented. The chapter concludes with a summary of the research findings. Chapter 5 provides a summary of the findings and conclusions of the research objective and issues, discusses the contribution of the research findings to the literature and theory, reviews the implications of the findings, discusses the limitations of the research, and concludes with suggested direction for future research. 1.6 Key definitions Definitions adopted by researchers are often not uniform; hence key terms are defined to establish positions taken for this dissertation (Perry 1998). This will ensure that subsequent research, undertaken at a later stage, will better measure and compare what this dissertation has set out to do. †¢ Logistics: The management and movement of product and services, including storage and warehousing, and their transport via air, land, and water (Coyle, Bardi, and Langley, 1988). †¢ Supply chain: Consists of all inter-linked resources and activities needed to create and deliver products and services to customers (Hakanson, 1999). †¢ Supply chain management: This includes managing supply and demand, sourcing raw materials and parts, manufacturing and assembly, distribution across all channels, and delivery to the customer (Supply Chain Council, 2001). †¢ Supply chain agility or agile supply chain: An agile supply chain is one that is flexible and has a business-wide capability that embraces organizational structures, information systems, and logistics processes. (Christopher, 2000) †¢ Critical success factors (CSF): Critical success factors are those few things that must go well to ensure success for a manager or organization, and therefore may represent those managerial or enterprise areas that must be given continual attention. CSFs include issues vital to an organizations current operating activities and to its future success (Boynton and Zmud, 1984). †¢ Customer relationship management (CRM): CRM is the management of technology, processes, information, and people in order to maximize each customer contact by obtaining a 360-degree view of the customer (Galbreath and Rogers, 1999). †¢ Performance gap: This is a gap between the perceived performance and the expected importance of a factor (in this dissertation it is a supply chain factor). The performance gap provides an indication as to whether executives and managers are successful in translating their vision to their employees and hence such perception may give an indication regarding the degree of employees alignment with the organizations vision. If a factor is critical and has a negative value of factor alignment (perceived performance is less than the expectation), then the organization may have a potential problem with that factor. Information on factor alignment allows executives to develop a strategy to overcome the challenges associated with the gaps between importance and performance. (Martilla and James, 1977). †¢ Quality Function Deployment (QFD): QFD is a comprehensive quality tool that can be used to uncover customers spoken and unspoken needs, and convert these needs to product or service design targets and processes (Akao, 1990). 1.7 Delimitation There are several delimitations in this dissertation. †¢ The theoretical model derived from this dissertation is only applicable to the high technology companies. †¢ The dissertation is focused on companies operating geographically in California, United States of America, where there is a concentration of high technology companies. †¢ This dissertation is an exploratory research and will have to be tested for generalizability in later, more extensive, quantitative research (Perry, 1998). †¢ There is no scientific basis for choosing the number of cases in this dissertation. The number selected is based on the experiences and recommendations of the research and academic community (Eisenhardt, 1989; Perry, 1998). 1.8 Conclusion This chapter provides an overview of the dissertation. The aim, objectives, and justification of the research topic were discussed. The dissertation is an investigation on the impact of a supply chain management system on the competitive position of high technology business firms. It explores and investigates new ideas in supply chain management and examines how high technology firms manage and improve their supply chain management system. Furthermore, this dissertation will analyze the gaps and opportunities for supply chain management in high technology companies and give a set of recommendations. The methodology was briefly described, key definitions were explained, delimitations of this research were addressed, and the structure of the dissertation was outlined. With all the important areas of the research briefly introduced in this chapter, the following four chapters of this dissertation will present detailed description and findings of the research topic. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH ISSUES The previous chapter provided an overview of the dissertation and listed the objective, issues, and significance of the research topic. This chapter reviews the relevant literature and comprises of six sections. The review starts with a discussion on early approaches to understanding a firms performance and its competitive advantage. This is followed by the development of a theoretical framework and a discussion on contemporary approaches to competitive advantage. Next there is a discussion on supply chain management, followed by an overview of advanced supply chain management systems. The last two sections conclude with a discussion on gaps in the literature, identification of areas for further research, and the summary. 2.1 Early approaches to understanding a firms performance and competitive advantage One of the earliest (chronologically) approaches to competitive advantage is the microeconomic approach, or the idea of perfect competition (Walras, 1874, 1969). In perfect competition products are homogenous, consumers and producers have perfect information, prices will reach equilibrium, and as a result profits are negligible or low in the long run. However, according to Gill (1991), such a perfect economy is an abstraction, because there are monopolies, oligopolies, and perfect competition. Furthermore, there are also two kinds of competition: spatial and monopolistic. Spatial differentiation pertains to oligopolistic competition (Hotelling, 1929), and it meets consumers different tastes. Monopolistic competition assumes that small firms produce a variety of differentiated products (Chamberlin, 1933; in Gill, 1991). All these situations allow for profit maximization and higher profits (Gill, 1991). The industrial organization (IO) approach takes a richer approach to understanding a firms successful performance. IO differs from the microeconomic approach by introducing variables that explain real-world economic behavior. In IO, there are two competing hypothesis that lead to higher profits and success market power and a firms efficiency (Scherer, 1990; Tirole, 1988). Nevertheless, the IO approach assumes that markets and firms will reach equilibrium, and in equilibrium profits differences will not exist (Tirole, 1988). Both the microeconomic approach and the industrial organization approach assume that all firms would reach equilibrium and have equal profit and success. However, we know from a daily look at many firms performance on the stock market that profit and performance vary across firms, even when they are in the same business. Eaton and Lipsey (1978) have verified that differences in performance and profit exist between firms. 2.2 Contemporary approaches to achieving competitive advantage 2.2.1 Framework to understanding a firms performance One of the first researchers to propose a theoretical framework for understanding a firms performance is Porter (1980). He takes a strategic and analytical approach to understanding competitive strategy, and argued that, â€Å"Every firm competing in an industry has a competitive strategy, whether explicit or implicit† (Porter, 1980, p. xiii). He proposes a framework for analyzing industries and competitors and describes three generic strategies cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. He postulates that if a firm is able to do well in any of these strategies, it will gain competitive advantage. Porters concept is illustrated in 2-1. Generic Competitive Strategies†¢Overall cost leadership†¢Differentiation†¢FocusCompetitive Advantageof a Firm †¢ Cost leadership requires efficient-scale facilities, pursuit of cost reductions, and cost minimization in all areas of the firm. This will give more profit. †¢ Differentiation of product or service requires industry-wide differentiation, including design and brand image, customer service, and distribution or dealer network. Product or service differentiation will help increase customer loyalty and ensure repurchase. †¢ Focus on markets, buyers, or product lines can maximize profits. The framework, in 2-1, shows that the right strategies can provide competitive advantage. Porter (1985) also argues that competitive advantage come from the many discrete activities a firm performs in designing, producing, marketing, delivering, and supporting its product. Each of these activities contributes to a firms relative cost position and creates a basis for differentiation. This is the value chain, and a firm has to disaggregate its strategically relevant activities in order to understand the behavior of costs and the existing and potential sources of differentiation. A firm gains competitive advantage by performing these strategically important activities cheaper or better than its competitors (Porter, 1985), and this can lead to a higher profit margin. The value chain concept is illustrated in 2-2. Profit Margin Outbound Logistics Manufacturing Operations, and other Internal Processes Inbound Logistics Procurement Human Resource Management Technology Development Firm Infrastructure and Platform Services Customer Service Marketing and Sales Primary Activities Support Activities Supply Chain Approach Strategic Planning Approach Marketing Capabilities Approach The Value Chain and Theoretical Framework to Achieve Competitive Advantage Adapted from Porter (1985) and this literature review. Note 1: Key approaches to competitive advantage are highlighted with underlined Characters Note 2: The definition of supply chain implies all activities necessary to deliver a product (Hakanson, 1999). Therefore sales, marketing, and customer service activities can be construed as part of the supply chain approach shown in the . In this study, sales and marketing processes, such as demand management, order processing, and customer relationship management are included in the internal processes shown in the and in the supply chain literature review. However, sales and marketing activity, such as sales calls, advertising, product positioning, market research, and some post delivery support processes are excluded from supply chain activity. This is consistent with the approach taken by the Supply Chain Council and the SCOR (Supply Chain Operational Reference) model it uses to measure supply chain activity (Supply Chain Council, 2001). 2.2.2 Summary of contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Porters approach presents new thinking to competitive advantage (Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece, 1991) and has influenced other approaches to creating competitive advantage. Many of the other approaches to competitive advantage are summarized in Table 2-1. From the table, it can be seen that all the approaches to increasing competitive advantage, except for the early microeconomic and industrial organization approaches, fit the theoretical framework in 2-2. However, all these approaches to competitive advantage are complementary and not alternatives or conflicting theories they basically propose various segments of the theoretical framework shown in 2-2. The various approaches are discussed very briefly below, but the last approach (in Table 2-1), Supply Chain Management, is discussed in greater detail. 2.2.3 The strategic planning approach In essence, Porters (1980, 1985) approaches are strategic planning approaches, i.e. a firms competitive advantage can be planned for. This includes planning for differentiation in the value chain, low cost leadership, and focus. Nations can also be competitive (Porter, 1990). Nations need four conditions to gain competitive advantage and be successful. The four conditions are: factor conditions (education and skill levels), demand conditions (or market size), related and supporting industries, and company strategy and rivalry (Porter, 1990). Strategy is â€Å"lucky foresight†¦Strategy is always the product of a complex and unexpected interplay between ideas, information, personalities, and desire† according to Hamel (1998). What this implies is that one does not settle for obvious solutions and strategies but should look at alternatives, challenge assumptions, and look at new ways of delivering superior customer value and firm performance. Table 2-1 Summary of early and contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Approach Proponent Main idea/postulate Comments Microeconomic Walras (1874, 1984) Perfect competition results in negligible profits Ideas ignore monopolies, oligopolies, and product differentiation. Profit does vary across firms according to Eaton and Lipsey (1978). Industrial Organization Scherer (1990), Tirole (1988) Success comes from market power and a firms efficiency. All proponents agree that in the long term there will be industry equilibrium and little profit. Porter (1980) Porter (1985) Provides a framework for achieving competitive advantage. Every firm has a generic competitive strategy in cost leadership, market focus, or differentiation. The value chain disaggregates a firm into its strategically relevant activities. A firm gains competitive advantage by performing these important activities better than its competitors. Challenges the stereotype approach of perfect competition and industry equilibrium. Provides a prescriptive approach to achieve competitive advantage, but the ideas and solutions are essentially conceptual. Hamel (1998) Strategy is the product of a complex and unexpected interplay between ideas, information, personalities, and desire. A firm has to seek alternatives and new ways of delivering superior customer value and firm performance. The Strategic Approach and its Variations Value Chain Approach Strategic Approach Resource Based Approach Wernerfelt (1984), Barney (1991), Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece (1991). A firm has to identify specific, or rare, resources that lead to higher profits. Long-term superior performance comes from building product market positions that effectively utilize and maintain these resources. Examples of such resources include customer loyalty, and technological leads. If the resources are unique and difficult to duplicate, then the firm achieves competitive advantage. Table 2-1 (Continued) Summary of early and contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Approach Proponent Main idea/postulate Comments Market Strategy Marketing Capabilities Approach Resource-Advantage Theory Product Differentiation Day (1994,1999), Cool and Dierickx (1989), Aaker (1989), Caves and Ghemawat (1986). Also, Buzzell an